The Bush Era (2000–2008): The War on Terror, Domestic Transformation, and Economic Crisis
The presidency of George W. Bush (2001–2009) was defined by the seismic impact of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, which reshaped American foreign and domestic policy for decades to come. Bush, the son of former President George H.W. Bush, campaigned in 2000 as a “compassionate conservative,” promising to cut taxes, reform education, and restore moral leadership to the White House after the scandals of the Clinton years. However, the terrorist attacks early in his presidency thrust the nation into a state of war, expanding the powers of the executive branch and transforming America’s role in global affairs. Bush’s presidency was marked by the launch of the War on Terror, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, increased surveillance and domestic security measures, and ultimately, the collapse of the financial sector in the 2008 financial crisis.
I. The 2000 Election and a Controversial Victory
The 2000 presidential election between George W. Bush and Vice President Al Gore was one of the most controversial in American history. The election hinged on the outcome in Florida, where a razor-thin margin triggered a mandatory recount. The recount process was marred by disputes over “hanging chads” on punch-card ballots and allegations of voter suppression.
The election ultimately reached the U.S. Supreme Court in the case Bush v. Gore. In a 5–4 decision, the Court ordered the recount to stop, effectively awarding Florida’s 29 electoral votes to Bush. Gore won the popular vote by over 500,000 votes, but Bush secured the presidency with 271 electoral votes—just one more than the required 270.
The contentious outcome deepened partisan tensions, with many Democrats questioning the legitimacy of Bush’s presidency. Bush entered office with a narrow mandate, but his presidency would soon be dramatically reshaped by global events.
II. Domestic Policy Before 9/11: Tax Cuts and Education Reform
In his first months in office, Bush focused on domestic issues, particularly tax policy and education reform. His major legislative victory was the passage of the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA), which implemented sweeping tax cuts. The legislation reduced income tax rates, eliminated the estate tax, and lowered capital gains taxes. Proponents argued that the tax cuts would stimulate economic growth, but critics contended that they disproportionately benefited the wealthy and increased the budget deficit.
Bush also championed bipartisan education reform through the No Child Left Behind Act (2002), which established new federal accountability standards for public schools. The law tied federal funding to student performance on standardized tests, aiming to close the achievement gap between high- and low-income students. While the law increased funding for public education, it faced criticism for encouraging “teaching to the test” and for underfunding programs aimed at helping struggling schools.
III. September 11, 2001: A National Tragedy
The defining event of Bush’s presidency—and of early 21st-century American history—occurred on September 11, 2001. On that morning, 19 hijackers affiliated with the Islamic extremist group Al-Qaeda seized control of four commercial airliners. Two planes were flown into the World Trade Center towers in New York City, causing both towers to collapse. A third plane struck the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., while the fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, crashed into a field in Pennsylvania after passengers attempted to retake control from the hijackers.
The attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and injured thousands more, making it the deadliest terrorist attack in world history. The events of September 11 shattered the American sense of security and plunged the nation into mourning and fear.
Bush responded swiftly, addressing the nation on the evening of September 11 with the promise that the United States would retaliate:
“We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them.”
IV. The War on Terror and the Invasion of Afghanistan
Within weeks of the attacks, Bush launched the War on Terror—an expansive and open-ended military and political campaign aimed at eradicating terrorist networks and eliminating regimes that supported terrorism.
On October 7, 2001, the United States, backed by a coalition of NATO allies, launched Operation Enduring Freedom—a military campaign against the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, which had provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden and Al-Qaeda. U.S. and allied forces quickly overthrew the Taliban government, but bin Laden and many Al-Qaeda leaders escaped into the mountains of Tora Bora and into neighboring Pakistan.
The U.S. remained in Afghanistan to support the formation of a democratic government and combat a resurgent Taliban insurgency. However, the war in Afghanistan would become the longest conflict in American history, with U.S. troops remaining engaged until 2021.
V. The Iraq War and the Search for Weapons of Mass Destruction
The Bush administration’s most controversial foreign policy decision was the invasion of Iraq in March 2003. Bush and his advisors argued that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and was seeking to develop nuclear weapons. The administration also claimed that Iraq had ties to Al-Qaeda, although no credible evidence supported this assertion.
The invasion began with a massive aerial bombardment known as “Shock and Awe.” Within weeks, U.S. and coalition forces overran Iraqi defenses and captured Baghdad. Saddam Hussein was captured in December 2003 and later tried and executed by Iraq’s new government.
However, the failure to find WMDs damaged the administration’s credibility, and the occupation of Iraq descended into chaos. A violent insurgency emerged, fueled by sectarian conflict between Sunni and Shiite militias. The rise of terrorist organizations, including Al-Qaeda in Iraq (which later evolved into ISIS), prolonged the conflict and undermined efforts to stabilize the country.
The Iraq War cost the United States over $2 trillion and resulted in the deaths of more than 4,400 American soldiers and tens of thousands of Iraqi civilians. Bush’s approval ratings, which had soared after 9/11, began to plummet as the conflict dragged on without resolution.
VI. The Domestic Consequences of the War on Terror
The War on Terror also transformed domestic policy. In October 2001, Congress passed the USA PATRIOT Act, which expanded the government’s surveillance powers and allowed for the indefinite detention of terrorism suspects without trial. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security consolidated federal agencies responsible for domestic security and border protection.
The Bush administration also authorized controversial interrogation techniques, including waterboarding and other forms of torture, against terrorism suspects held at Guantanamo Bay and secret CIA “black sites.” The revelation of these practices sparked international condemnation and legal challenges.
VII. Hurricane Katrina and Domestic Failures
Bush’s presidency was also marked by failures on the domestic front. In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated the Gulf Coast, flooding most of New Orleans and causing over 1,800 deaths. The Bush administration was widely criticized for its slow and ineffective response, as residents were left stranded without food, water, or medical care.
VIII. The Financial Crisis of 2008
The final crisis of Bush’s presidency was the Great Recession of 2008. Years of deregulation, speculative lending, and the collapse of the housing market triggered a global financial meltdown. Major banks, including Lehman Brothers, failed, and financial markets collapsed. Bush’s administration responded with the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (2008), which authorized a $700 billion bailout of the financial sector.
IX. Legacy
Bush left office in January 2009 with an approval rating of 34%—one of the lowest for a departing president. His legacy remains deeply divisive. Supporters credit Bush with protecting the United States from further terrorist attacks and expanding global democracy. Critics argue that the Iraq War, the failure in Afghanistan, and the financial crisis weakened America’s global standing and deepened domestic inequality. Regardless of interpretation, Bush’s presidency reshaped America’s political and military posture for the 21st century.